Mars Exploration Rover mission

Crisp, J. A.; Adler, M.; Matijevic, J. R.; Squyres, S. W.; Arvidson, R. E.; Kass, D. M.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

Abstract: In January 2004 the Mars Exploration Rover mission will land two rovers at two different landing sites that show possible evidence for past liquid‐water activity. The spacecraft design is based on the Mars Pathfinder configuration for cruise and entry, descent, and landing. Each of the identical rovers is equipped with a science payload of two remote‐sensing instruments that will view the surrounding terrain from the top of a mast, a robotic arm that can place three instruments and a rock abrasion tool on selected rock and soil samples, and several onboard magnets and calibration targets. Engineering sensors and components useful for science investigations include stereo navigation cameras, stereo hazard cameras in front and rear, wheel motors, wheel motor current and voltage, the wheels themselves for digging, gyros, accelerometers, and reference solar cell readings. Mission operations will allow commanding of the rover each Martian day, or sol, on the basis of the previous sol's data. Over a 90‐sol mission lifetime, the rovers are expected to drive hundreds of meters while carrying out field geology investigations, exploration, and atmospheric characterization. The data products


Overview of the Opportunity Mars Exploration Rover Mission to Meridiani Planum: Eagle Crater to Purgatory Ripple

S. W. Squyres; R. E. Arvidson; David Bollen; J. F. Bell; J. Brückner; Nathalie A. Cabrol; W. M. Calvin; M. H. Carr

Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres

Abstract: The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity touched down at Meridiani Planum in January 2004 and since then has been conducting observations with the Athena science payload. The rover has traversed more than 5 km, carrying out the first outcrop‐scale investigation of sedimentary rocks on Mars. The rocks of Meridiani Planum are sandstones formed by eolian and aqueous reworking of sand grains that are composed of mixed fine‐grained siliciclastics and sulfates. The siliciclastic fraction was produced by chemical alteration of a precursor basalt. The sulfates are dominantly Mg‐sulfates and also include Ca‐sulfates and jarosite. The stratigraphic section observed to date is dominated by eolian bedforms, with subaqueous current ripples exposed near the top of the section. After deposition, interaction with groundwater produced a range of diagenetic features, notably the hematite‐rich concretions known as “blueberries.” The bedrock at Meridiani is highly friable and has undergone substantial erosion by wind‐transported basaltic sand. This sand, along with concretions and concretion fragments eroded from the rock, makes up a soil cover that thinly and discontinuously buries the bedrock. The soi


Global planning on the Mars Exploration Rovers: Software integration and surface testing

Carsten, J.; Rankin, A.; Ferguson, D.; Stentz, A.

Abstract: Abstract In January 2004, NASA's twin Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs), Spirit and Opportunity, began searching the surface of Mars for evidence of past water activity. To localize and approach scientifically interesting targets, the rovers employ an onboard navigation system. Given the latency in sending commands from Earth to the Martian rovers (and in receiving return data), a high level of navigational autonomy is desirable. Autonomous navigation with hazard avoidance (AutoNav) is currently performed using a local path planner called GESTALT (grid‐based estimation of surface traversability applied to local terrain) that incorporates terrain and obstacle information generated from stereo cameras. GESTALT works well at guiding the rovers around narrow and isolated hazards; however, it is susceptible to failure when clusters of closely spaced, nontraversable rocks form extended obstacles. In May 2005, a new technology task was initiated at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to address this limitation. Specifically, a version of the Field D* global path planner was integrated into MER flight software, enabling simultaneous local and global planning during AutoNav. A revised version of Aut


Speckle velocimetry for high accuracy odometry for a Mars exploration rover


Combined EDL-mobility planning for planetary missions

AIAA Infotech at Aerospace Conference and Exhibit 2011


Mars Science Laboratory Mission and Science Investigation


Simulations of Mars Rover Traverses


Overview of the Mars Science Laboratory mission: Bradbury Landing to Yellowknife Bay and beyond

Abstract: Abstract The Mars Science Laboratory mission reached Bradbury Landing in August 2012. In its first 500 sols, the rover Curiosity was commissioned and began its investigation of the habitability of past and present environments within Gale Crater. Curiosity traversed eastward toward Glenelg, investigating a boulder with a highly alkaline basaltic composition, encountering numerous exposures of outcropping pebble conglomerate, and sampling aeolian sediment at Rocknest and lacustrine mudstones at Yellowknife Bay. On sol 324, the mission turned its focus southwest, beginning a year‐long journey to the lower reaches of Mt. Sharp, with brief stops at the Darwin and Cooperstown waypoints. The unprecedented complexity of the rover and payload systems posed challenges to science operations, as did a number of anomalies. Operational processes were revised to include additional opportunities for advance planning by the science and engineering teams.


GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE MSL CURIOSITY ROVER EXTENDED MISSION TRAVERSE OF AEOLIS MONS, GALE CRATER, MARS

; Stack, Kathryn M.; Cofield, Shannon M.; Fraeman, Abigail A.; Edwards, Christopher S.

Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs


On the treatment of soft soil parameter uncertainties in planetary rover mobility simulations

Gallina, Alberto; Krenn, Rainer; Schäfer, Bernd


Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity Rover Megaripple Crossings up to Sol 710 in Gale Crater

Abstract: After landing in Gale Crater on August 6, 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover traveled across regolith‐covered, rock‐strewn plains that transitioned into terrains that have been variably eroded, with valleys partially filled with windblown sands, and intervening plateaus capped by well‐cemented sandstones that have been fractured and shaped by wind into outcrops with numerous sharp rock surfaces. Wheel punctures and tears caused by sharp rocks while traversing the plateaus led to directing the rover to traverse in valleys where sands would cushion wheel loads. This required driving across a megaripple (windblown, sand‐sized deposit covered by coarser grains) that straddles a narrow gap and several extensive megaripple deposits that accumulated in low portions of valleys. Traverses across megaripple deposits led to mobility difficulties, with sinkage values up to approximately 30% of the 0.50 m wheel diameter, resultant high compaction resistances, and rover‐based slip up to 77%. Analysis of imaging and engineering data collected during traverses across megaripples for the first 710 sols (Mars days) of the mission, laboratory‐based single‐wheel soil experiments, full‐s


Compositional variations in sands of the Bagnold Dunes, Gale crater, Mars, from visible‐shortwave infrared spectroscopy and comparison with ground truth from the Curiosity rover

M. G. A. Lapôtre; B. L. Ehlmann; S. E. Minson; R. E. Arvidson; F. Ayoub; A. A. Fraeman; R. C. Ewing; N. T. Bridges

Abstract: Abstract During its ascent up Mount Sharp, the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover traversed the Bagnold Dune Field. We model sand modal mineralogy and grain size at four locations near the rover traverse, using orbital shortwave infrared single‐scattering albedo spectra and a Markov chain Monte Carlo implementation of Hapke's radiative transfer theory to fully constrain uncertainties and permitted solutions. These predictions, evaluated against in situ measurements at one site from the Curiosity rover, show that X‐ray diffraction‐measured mineralogy of the basaltic sands is within the 95% confidence interval of model predictions. However, predictions are relatively insensitive to grain size and are nonunique, especially when modeling the composition of minerals with solid solutions. We find an overall basaltic mineralogy and show subtle spatial variations in composition in and around the Bagnold Dunes, consistent with a mafic enrichment of sands with cumulative aeolian‐transport distance by sorting of olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase grains. Furthermore, the large variations in Fe and Mg abundances (~20 wt %) at the Bagnold Dunes suggest that compositional variability may be


Examining the myths of connected and autonomous vehicles: analysing the pathway to a driverless mobility paradigm

Alexandros Nikitas; Eric Tchouamou Njoya; Samir Dani

International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management

Abstract: Connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) could become the most powerful mobility intervention in the history of human race; possibly greater than the conception of the wheel itself or the shift from horse-carriages to automobiles. Despite CAVs' likely traffic safety, economic, environmental, social inclusion and network performance benefits their full-scale implementation may not be as predictable, uncomplicated, acceptable and risk-free as it is often communicated by a large share of automotive industries, policy-makers and transport experts. Framing an 'unproven', 'disruptive' and 'life-changing' intervention, primarily based on its competitive advantages over today's conventional automobile technologies, may create misconceptions, overreaching expectations and room for errors that societies need to be cautious about. This article 'tests' eleven myths referring to an overly optimistic CAVs' development and adoption timeline. This approach highlights unresolved issues that need to be addressed before an inescapable CAV-based mobility paradigm transition takes place and provides relevant policy recommendations on how to achieve that.


Iron Mobility During Diagenesis at Vera Rubin Ridge, Gale Crater, Mars


Manganese Mobility in Gale Crater, Mars: Leached Bedrock and Localized Enrichments


Curiosity rover TLS-SAM measurements consistent with localized methane containment and transport by 3-D atmospheric circulation in Gale crater

Pla-Garcia, Jorge; Rafkin, Scot; Ruíz-Pérez, María; Atreya, Sushil; Gómez, Felipe

Abstract: <jats:p>The Curiosity rover has traversed more than 30 km from the landing site at the very bottom of Gale crater and has climbed more than &#8764;800 m into the Mt. Sharp foothills over more than five Martian years. During nighttime, downslope winds originating from both Mt. Sharp and crater rims would prevent the nighttime accumulation of methane released along the slopes above the cold pool and facilitate the convergence and accumulation of methane in the bottom of the crater [Figure, Panel A]. As a result, any methane released along the slopes at night is quickly transported downslope. After sunrise [Figure, Panel B], the crater circulation transitions to an upslope regime. The reversal of the circulation should transport the methane accumulated in the bottom of the crater upslope as shown in MRAMS model tracer fields, that also indicate a substantial horizontal mixing that rapidly dilutes the methane-enriched air mass. Any methane released along the slopes is transported horiz


Americium fuelled radioisotope stirling generator for lunar surface mobility systems

Ramy Mesalam; Paul Schmitz; Hannah Sargeant; Elizabeth Turnbull; Alessandra Barco; Scott D. Wilson; Jesse Stuck; Emily Jane Watkinson; Steven R. Oleson; Richard Ambrosi


Widespread Diagenesis at Unconformities in Gale Crater as Inferred From the Curiosity Rover and From Orbit

Haber, James T.; Horgan, Briony; Rudolph, Amanda

Abstract: <jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>NASA's <jats:italic>Curiosity</jats:italic> rover has found widespread evidence of alteration in sedimentary rocks in Gale crater, Mars driven by interactions with fluids both before and after lithification (early and late diagenesis). Most notably, <jats:italic>Curiosity</jats:italic> observed distinctive color, chemical, and mineralogical changes interpreted as evidence of diagenesis at the unconformity between Mt. Sharp group fluvial/lacustrine mudstones and Siccar Point group (SPg) aeolian sandstones, a part of the larger Mound Skirting Unit (MSU) that mantles Mt. Sharp. However, the distribution of diagenesis across Mt. Sharp beyond <jats:italic>Curiosity's</jats:italic> traverse is poorly constrained. In this study, we use orbital color images and spectroscopy to characterize diagenesis‐driven alteration at the MSU unconformity elsewhere in Gale. We find that color variations similar to those observed by <jats:italic>Curiosity</jats:italic


Resilient mobility of a four-wheeled planetary rover with active suspension

Jorge Ruben Casir Ricano; Sota Yuasa; Ryota Hino; Tomoki Koshi; Tatsuya Oyama; Kenji Nagaoka


The Political Economy of Technological Change: Resistance and Innovation in Economic History


Personal Knowledge and Propositional Knowledge

Belief, Personal, and Propositional Knowledge


Trade, Knowledge, and the Industrial Revolution

Kevin O’Rourke; Ahmed S. Rahman; Alan M. Taylor

Abstract: Technological change was unskilled-labor-biased during the early Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, but is skill-biased today. This fact is not embedded in extant unified growth models. We develop a model of the transition to sustained economic growth which can endogenously account for both these facts, by allowing the factor bias of technological innovations to reflect the profit-maximising decisions of innovators. Endowments dictated that the initial stages of the Industrial Revolution be unskilled-labor biased. The transition to skill-biased technological change was due to a growth in "Baconian knowledge" and international trade. Simulations show that the model does a good job of tracking reality, at least until the mass education reforms of the late nineteenth century.


Luddites and the Demographic Transition

Abstract: Technological change was unskilled-labor-biased during the early Industrial Revolution, but is skill-biased today. This is not embedded in extant unified growth models. We develop a model which can endogenously account for these facts, where factor bias reflects profit-maximizing decisions by innovators. Endowments dictate that the early Industrial Revolution be unskilled-labor-biased. Increasing basic knowledge causes a growth takeoff, an income-led demand for fewer educated children, and the transition to skill-biased technological change. The simulated model tracks British industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries and generates a demographic transition without relying on either rising skill premia or exogenous educational supply shocks.


Twenty-Five Centuries of Technological Change


The missing link: knowledge diffusion and entrepreneurship in endogenous growth

Braunerhjelm, P.; Acs, Z. J.; Audretsch, D. B.; Carlsson, B.

Abstract: The intellectual breakthrough contributed by the new growth theory was the recognition that investments in knowledge and human capital endogenously generate economic growth through the spillover of kn


The Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy


Path Planning and Autonomous Navigation for a Planetary Exploration Rover

Abstract:
<jats:title>Planification de chemin et navigation autonome pour un rover d’exploration planétaire</jats:title>
                <jats:p xml:lang="fr">Dans le cadre du programme ExoMars, l’ESA va déployer un rover sur Mars dont la mission sera de réaliser des prélèvements d’échantillons par forage souterrain et les analyser à l’aide des instruments scientifiques embarqués. Pour atteindre en toute sécurité les différents points d’intérêt où seront effectués ces prélèvements, le rover devra être capable de parcourir plus de 70 mètres par sol (jour martien) tout en respectant les limitations des communications interplanétaires. Les performances des algorithmes de navigation autonome embarqués impacteront directement la réussite scientifique de cette mission. Le premier objectif de cette thèse est d’améliorer les performances de l’architecture de planification de chemin local itératif proposée par le CNES. Tout d’abord, l’utilisation d’un planificateur incrémental de chemin local ”Fringe Ret


The Rocky 7 rover: a Mars sciencecraft prototype

S. Hayati; R. Volpe; Paul Backes; J. Balaram; Richard V. Welch; R. Ivlev; Gregory K. Tharp; Stephen Peters

Abstract: This paper describes the design and implementation at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of a small rover for future Mars missions requiring long traverses and rover-based science experiments. The small rover prototype, called Rocky 7, is capable of long traverses, autonomous navigation, and science instrument control. This rover carries three science instruments, and can be commanded from any computer platform from any location using the World Wide Web. In this paper we describe the mobility system, the sampling system, the sensor suite, navigation and control, onboard science instruments, and the ground command and control system. We also present key accomplishments of a recent field test of Rocky 7 in the Mojave Desert in California.


Mars rover navigation results using sun sensor heading determination

Abstract: Upcoming missions to the surface of Mars will use mobile robots to traverse long distances from the landing site. To prepare for these missions, the prototype rover, Rocky 7, has been tested in desert field trials conducted with a team of planetary scientists. While several new capabilities have been demonstrated, foremost among these was sun-sensor based traversal of natural terrain totaling a distance of one kilometer. This paper describes navigation results obtained in the field tests, where cross-track error was only 6% of distance traveled. Comparison with previous results of other planetary rover systems shows this to be a significant improvement.


Mars Rover Autonomous Navigation


Global Path Planning on Board the Mars Exploration Rovers

Abstract: In January 2004, NASA's twin Mars exploration rovers (MERs), spirit and opportunity, began searching the surface of Mars for evidence of past water activity. In order to localize and approach scientifically interesting targets, the rovers employ an on-board navigation system. Given the latency in sending commands from Earth to the Martian rovers (and in receiving return data), a high level of navigational autonomy is desirable. Autonomous navigation with hazard avoidance (AutoNav) is currently performed using a local path planner called GESTALT (grid-based estimation of surface traversability applied to local terrain). GESTALT uses stereo cameras to evaluate terrain safety and avoid obstacles. GESTALT works well to guide the rovers around narrow and isolated hazards, however, it is susceptible to failure when clusters of closely spaced, non-traversable rocks form extended obstacles. In May 2005, a new technology task was initiated at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to address this limitation. A version of the Carnegie Mellon University Field D* global path planner has been integrated into MER flight software, enabling simultaneous local and global planning during AutoNav. A revised v


Two years of Visual Odometry on the Mars Exploration Rovers

Abstract: Abstract NASA's two Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) have successfully demonstrated a robotic Visual Odometry capability on another world for the first time. This provides each rover with accurate knowledge of its position, allowing it to autonomously detect and compensate for any unforeseen slip encountered during a drive. It has enabled the rovers to drive safely and more effectively in highly sloped and sandy terrains and has resulted in increased mission science return by reducing the number of days required to drive into interesting areas. The MER Visual Odometry system comprises onboard software for comparing stereo pairs taken by the pointable mast‐mounted 45 deg FOV Navigation cameras (NAVCAMs). The system computes an update to the 6 degree of freedom rover pose ( x , y , z , roll, pitch, yaw) by tracking the motion of autonomously selected terrain features between two pairs of 256×256 stereo images. It has demonstrated good performance with high rates of successful convergence (97% on Spirit, 95% on Opportunity), successfully detected slip ratios as high as 125%, and measured changes as small as 2 mm, even while driving on slopes as high as 31 deg. Visual Odometry was used ov


Long‐range rover localization by matching LIDAR scans to orbital elevation maps

Patrick Carle; Paul Furgale; Timothy D. Barfoot

Abstract: Abstract Current rover localization techniques such as visual odometry have proven to be very effective on short‐ to medium‐length traverses (e.g., up to a few kilometers). This paper deals with the problem of long‐range rover localization (e.g., 10 km and up) by developing an algorithm named MOGA (Multi‐frame Odometry‐compensated Global Alignment). This algorithm is designed to globally localize a rover by matching features detected from a three‐dimensional (3D) orbital elevation map to features from rover‐based, 3D LIDAR scans. The accuracy and efficiency of MOGA are enhanced with visual odometry and inclinometer/sun‐sensor orientation measurements. The methodology was tested with real data, including 37 LIDAR scans of terrain from a Mars–Moon analog site on Devon Island, Nunavut. When a scan contained a sufficient number of good topographic features, localization produced position errors of no more than 100 m, of which most were less than 50 m and some even as low as a few meters. Results were compared to and shown to outperform VIPER, a competing global localization algorithm that was given the same initial conditions as MOGA. On a 10‐km traverse, MOGA's localization estimates


Visual Odometry : Part II: Matching, Robustness, Optimization, and Applications

Friedrich Fraundorfer; Davide Scaramuzza

Abstract: Part II of the tutorial has summarized the remaining building blocks of the VO pipeline: specifically, how to detect and match salient and repeatable features across frames and robust estimation in the presence of outliers and bundle adjustment. In addition, error propagation, applications, and links to publicly available code are included. VO is a well understood and established part of robotics. VO has reached a maturity that has allowed us to successfully use it for certain classes of applications: space, ground, aerial, and underwater. In the presence of loop closures, VO can be used as a building block for a complete SLAM algorithm to reduce motion drift. Challenges that still remain are to develop and demonstrate large-scale and long-term implementations, such as driving autonomous cars for hundreds of miles. Such systems have recently been demonstrated using Lidar and Radar sensors [86]. However, for VO to be used in such systems, technical issues regarding robustness and, especially, long-term stability have to be resolved. Eventually, VO has the potential to replace Lidar-based systems for egomotion estimation, which are currently leading the state of the art in accuracy,


Onboard Autonomous Path Planning for a Planetary Exploration Rover

RUSU, Alexandru; Moreno, Sabine; Wanatabe, Yoko; Rognant, Mathieu; Devy, Michel

AIAA Infotech@Aerospace (I@A) Conference


An Overview to Visual Odometry and Visual SLAM: Applications to Mobile Robotics

Khalid Yousif; Alireza Bab‐Hadiashar; Reza Hoseinnezhad


Traversability based obstacle avoidance path-planning and path-following control for lunar rover

Li, Linhui; Lian, Jing; Huang, Haiyang; Wang, Hongxu; Zong, Yunpeng; Zhang, Ronghui


Autonomous navigation in cluttered environments


Relating geologic units and mobility system kinematics contributing to Curiosity wheel damage at Gale Crater, Mars

R. E. Arvidson; Patrick DeGrosse; J. P. Grotzinger; M. Heverly; J. Shechet; Scott Moreland; M.A. Newby; N. Stein

Abstract: Curiosity landed on plains to the north of Mount Sharp in August 2012. By June 2016 the rover had traversed 12.9 km to the southwest, encountering extensive strata that were deposited in a fluvial-deltaic-lacustrine system. Initial drives across sharp sandstone outcrops initiated an unacceptably high rate of punctures and cracks in the thin aluminum wheel skin structures. Initial damage was found to be related to the drive control mode of the six wheel drive actuators and the kinematics of the rocker-bogie suspension. Wheels leading a suspension pivot were forced onto sharp, immobile surfaces by the other wheels as they maintained their commanded angular velocities. Wheel damage mechanisms such as geometry-induced stress concentration cracking and low-cycle fatigue were then exacerbated. A geomorphic map was generated to assist in planning traverses that would minimize further wheel damage. A steady increase in punctures and cracks between landing and June 2016 was due in part because of drives across the sharp sandstone outcrops that could not be avoided. Wheel lifetime estimates show that with careful path planning the wheels will be operational for an additional ten kilometers o


Results of the Inflatable Robotic Rover Testbed

Abstract: Abstract: "Inflatable robotic rovers (IRRs) are a promising concept for long-range exploration and access to high-risk areas on planetary surfaces. Through inflation or expansion of their locomotion elements, inflatable rovers can achieve extraordinary terrainability not possible by other conventional mobility systems while maintaining respectable travel speeds. Early work by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory has identified key mobility advantages, but design optimality and limitations relative to mission requirements are currently not known. This paper describes CMU's experimental studies that characterize single robotic wheel performance in terms of rolling resistance, drawbar pull, drive torque, drive power and tire wear. These studies were performed with a testbed apparatus that allowed variation of tire design, wheel speed / acceleration, tire pressure, soil / obstacle properties and traverse length."


Path Planning and Obstacle Avoidance in CG Space of a 10 DOF Rover using RRT

Proceedings of the Advances in Robotics 2019


The Mars 2020 Engineering Cameras and Microphone on the Perseverance Rover: A Next-Generation Imaging System for Mars Exploration

Abstract: Abstract The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover is equipped with a next-generation engineering camera imaging system that represents an upgrade over previous Mars rover missions. These upgrades will improve the operational capabilities of the rover with an emphasis on drive planning, robotic arm operation, instrument operations, sample caching activities, and documentation of key events during entry, descent, and landing (EDL). There are a total of 16 cameras in the Perseverance engineering imaging system, including 9 cameras for surface operations and 7 cameras for EDL documentation. There are 3 types of cameras designed for surface operations: Navigation cameras (Navcams, quantity 2), Hazard Avoidance Cameras (Hazcams, quantity 6), and Cachecam (quantity 1). The Navcams will acquire color stereo images of the surface with a $96^{\circ}\times 73^{\circ}$ <mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <mml:msup> <mml:mn>96</mml:mn> <mml:mo>∘</mml:mo> </mml:msup> <mml:mo>×</mml:mo> <mml:msup> <mml:mn>73</mml:mn> <mml:mo>∘</mml:mo> </mml:msup> </mml:math> field of view at 0.33 mrad/pixel. The Hazcams will acquire color stereo images of the surface with a $136^{\circ}\times 102^{


A ROS-based Simulator for Testing the Enhanced Autonomous Navigation of the Mars 2020 Rover

Toupet, Olivier; Del Sesto, Tyler; Ono, Masahiro; Myint, Steven; vander Hook, Joshua; McHenry, Michael


Autonomy for Space Robots: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract: Abstract Purpose of Review The purpose of this review is to highlight space autonomy advances across mission phases, capture the anticipated need for autonomy and associated rationale, assess state of the practice, and share thoughts for future advancements that could lead to a new frontier in space exploration. Recent Findings Over the past two decades, several autonomous functions and system-level capabilities have been demonstrated and used in spacecraft operations. In spite of that, spacecraft today remain largely reliant on ground in the loop to assess situations and plan next actions, using pre-scripted command sequences. Advances have been made across mission phases including spacecraft navigation; proximity operations; entry, descent, and landing; surface mobility and manipulation; and data handling. But past successful practices may not be sustainable for future exploration. The ability of ground operators to predict the outcome of their plans seriously diminishes when platforms physically interact with planetary bodies, as has been experienced in two decades of Mars surface operations. This results from uncertainties that arise due to limited knowledge, complex physical i


Machine Learning Based Path Planning for Improved Rover Navigation

Neil Abcouwer; Shreyansh Daftry; Tyler Del Sesto; Olivier Toupet; Masahiro Ono; Siddarth Venkatraman; Ravi Lanka; Jialin Song

Abstract: Enhanced AutoNav (ENav), the baseline surface navigation software for NASA's Perseverance rover, sorts a list of candidate paths for the rover to traverse, then uses the Approximate Clearance Evaluation (ACE) algorithm to evaluate whether the most highly ranked paths are safe. ACE is crucial for maintaining the safety of the rover, but is computationally expensive. If the most promising candidates in the list of paths are all found to be infeasible, ENav must continue to search the list and run time-consuming ACE evaluations until a feasible path is found. In this paper, we present two heuristics that, given a terrain heightmap around the rover, produce cost estimates that more effectively rank the candidate paths before ACE evaluation. The first heuristic uses Sobel operators and convolution to incorporate the cost of traversing high-gradient terrain. The second heuristic uses a machine learning (ML) model to predict areas that will be deemed untraversable by ACE. We used physics simulations to collect training data for the ML model and to run Monte Carlo trials to quantify navigation performance across a variety of terrains with various slopes and rock distributions. Compared to


Rovers localization by using 3D-to-3D and 3D-to-2D visual odometry

2021 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Aerospace Metroaerospace 2021 Proceedings


Precise pose estimation of the NASA Mars 2020 Perseverance rover through a stereo-vision-based approach

Abstract: Abstract Visual Odometry (VO) is a fundamental technique to enhance the navigation capabilities of planetary exploration rovers. By processing the images acquired during the motion, VO methods provide estimates of the relative position and attitude between navigation steps with the detection and tracking of two‐dimensional (2D) image keypoints. This method allows one to mitigate trajectory inconsistencies associated with slippage conditions resulting from dead‐reckoning techniques. We present here an independent analysis of the high‐resolution stereo images of the NASA Mars 2020 Perseverance rover to retrieve its accurate localization on sols 65, 66, 72, and 120. The stereo pairs are processed by using a 3D‐to‐3D stereo‐VO approach that is based on consolidated techniques and accounts for the main nonlinear optical effects characterizing real cameras. The algorithm is first validated through the analysis of rectified stereo images acquired by the NASA Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, and then applied to the determination of Perseverance's path. The results suggest that our reconstructed path is consistent with the telemetered trajectory, which was directly retrieved onboard the


Advancements in autonomous mobility of planetary wheeled mobile robots: A review


Estimation of the NASA Mars2020 Perseverance rover path through Visual Odometry

Andolfo, Simone; Petricca, Flavio; Genova, Antonio

Abstract: <jats:p>&lt;p&gt;The future space exploration missions will require autonomous robotic systems capable to safely move across the operational environment and reach sites of scientific interest with limited commands from the ground operators.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The NASA Mars2020 Perseverance rover is the most advanced robotic vehicle ever sent on the planet Mars and is currently exploring the Jezero crater searching for signs of ancient life and investigating the geological history of the planet. The increased computational resources of the Perseverance&amp;#8217;s onboard computer enable the navigation software to continuously adjust the path, by processing visual inputs through the navigation cameras. The stereo images with the left and right rover cameras are analyzed to build local 3D maps of the surrounding terrain to identify hazardous areas (&lt;em&gt;e.g.&lt;/em&gt;, steep slopes) that could affect the rover&amp;#8217;s safety.&l


Phoenix: Towards Designing and Developing a Human Assistant Rover

Akib Zaman; Mohammad Shahjahan Majib; Shoeb Ahmed Tanjim; Shah Md. Ahasan Siddique; Fardeen Ashraf; Shafayetul Islam; Abu Hena Md Maruf Morshed; Shadman Tajwar Shahid

Abstract: Human-assistance rovers have a broad prospect in the field of space robotics, as a significant number of organizations and researchers have been investing in the design and development of sophisticated rovers for planetary exploration. In order to promote research and development in the design of next-generation MARS rovers, an annual University Rover Challenge (URC) is hosted by the MARS Society in the United States. In this study, we highlight the design and development process of several novel subsystems of a human-assistance planetary exploration rover and their successive integration in the prototype named PHOENIX, which is a rover that participated in the URC 2021. First, a detailed requirement elicitation has been conducted, for designing a conceptual framework for a rover capable of planetary exploration. Secondly, the design and development process has been detailed for five basic subsystems (power, communication, primary-manipulator, chassis with drive, processing) and two mission-specific subsystems (scientific exploration and autonomous navigation), as well as their successive integration into the rover. Afterwards, a detailed evaluation study has been conducted in orde


Visual Odometry analysis of the NASA Mars 2020 Perseverance rover's images

2022 IEEE 9th International Workshop on Metrology for Aerospace Metroaerospace 2022 Proceedings


Path Planning Technology of Mars Rover Based on Griding of Visibility-graph Map Direction Search Method

Tao, Zhuo; Zhang, Wangjun; Jia, Yang; Chen, Baichao


Aided Visual Odometry: A Sparse Bundle Adjustment Solution for Rover Navigation

Abstract: <jats:p>Acquisition of accurate ego-motion estimates sits at the core of autonomous navigational re- search. In this thesis, a method of estimating rover trajectory through stereo visual odometry is proposed. This research presents a navigational system aided by a sun-sensor and inclinome- ter to improve accuracy in motion estimation. Specifically, this research improves on the work conducted by Lambert et al. [1] and investigates the accuracy of previous work as well as the quality of the Devon Island dataset. Sparse implementations of matrices are utilized to effi- ciently determine trajectory estimations using both stereo camera and the secondary attitude sensors. Ultimately this thesis implements an algorithm that results in a significant reduction in computational cost when compared to the work conducted by Lambert et al. [1] iii</jats:p>


Battery State-of-Health Aware Path Planning for a Mars Rover

Salinas-Camus, Mariana; Kulkarni, Chetan; Orchard, Marcos

Abstract: <jats:p>A rover mission consists of visiting waypoints to gather scientific samples based on set requirements. However, rovers face operational uncertainties during the mission, affecting the performance of its electrical and mechanical components and overall mission success. Hence, it is critical to have a decision-making framework that is aware of the health state of the components when planning the path of the vehicle. In particular, battery degradation, and consequently the battery State of Health (SOH), can affect the optimality of decisions made by the autonomous system in the long term. This paper presents a decision-making system that incorporates information on the energy drawn from the battery (based on the velocity of the vehicle), terrain conditions, and model-based prognostic modules to assess impact on the battery state of charge (SoC). The decision-making system was formulated as a Markov Decision Process (MDP) to reach the goal destination by sending commands in a deter


Autonomous robotics is driving Perseverance rover’s progress on Mars

Vandi Verma; Mark Maimone; Daniel Gaines; Raymond Francis; Tara Estlin; Stephen Kuhn; Gregg Rabideau; Steve Chien

Abstract: NASA's Perseverance rover uses robotic autonomy to achieve its mission goals on Mars. Its self-driving autonomous navigation system (AutoNav) has been used to evaluate 88% of the 17.7-kilometer distance traveled during its first Mars year of operation. Previously, the maximum total autonomous distance evaluated was 2.4 kilometers by the Opportunity rover during its 14-year lifetime. AutoNav has set multiple planetary rover records, including the greatest distance driven without human review (699.9 meters) and the greatest single-day drive distance (347.7 meters). The Autonomous Exploration for Gathering Increased Science (AEGIS) system analyzes wide-angle imagery onboard to autonomously select targets for observations by the SuperCam instrument, a multimode sensor suite capable of millimeter-scale geochemical and mineralogical analysis. AEGIS enables observations of scientifically interesting targets during or immediately after long drives without the need for ground communication. OnBoard Planner (OBP) is a scheduling capability planned for operational use in September 2023 that has the potential to reduce energy usage by up to 20% and complete drive and arm-contact science campai


Feature Point Selection Scheme of Stereo Visual Odometry for Planetary Exploration Rover

2024 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM)


Machine Learning-based Obstacle Avoidance Path Planning of Agricultural Rover

Chatterjee, Pratyusha; Mitra, Debajyoti; Bhowmik, Tanima


Enhanced Autonomous Navigation on the Perseverance Mars Rover

Abstract: This paper presents <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Enhanced Autonomous Navigation, or <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">ENav, the autonomous driving algorithm of NASA’s Mars rover <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Perseverance. A unique challenge for the autonomous driving of <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Perseverance is to meet strict safety and performance requirements in a highly uncertain environment with only a single-core CPU with extremely limited computing resources. ENav overcame this challenge with a novel two-stage path selection approach that balances the path optimality and computational efficiency, combined with a unique collision checking algorithm that conservatively approximates computationally expensive kinematic settling (Otsu et al., 2020). In addition, ENav provides robustness against slip by expanding the bounding boxes for wheels used by the collision check. These new features, togethe


A Comprehensive Review of Path-Planning Algorithms for Planetary Rover Exploration


Path planning algorithm for a South Pole lunar rover mission

F. Chen; Natasha Jackson; Pierre Allard; Giovanni Beltrame


Cooperative Autonomous Navigation

Automated and Autonomous Navigation Powered by GNSS


Few-Shot Learning-Enhanced Tiered Path Planning for Mars Rover Navigation

Wang, Ziyi; Yu, Di; Fathi, Mina Khalilzadeh; Pei, Chaoying


Path planning for Mars rover with kinematic constraint based on terrain information

2025 11th International Conference on Electrical Engineering, Control and Robotics (EECR)


Olivier Toupet; Masahiro Ono; Tyler del Sesto; Mark Maimone; Michael McHenry


132. Analysis of wheel performance (at zero slip rate) using the wheel-soil system constant


80. Analysis of wheel performance (at zero slip rate) using the wheel soil system constant


Path following using visual odometry for a Mars rover in high-slip environments

Helmick, D. M.; Cheng, Y.; Clouse, D. S.; Matthies, L. H.; Roumeliotis, S. I.


Terramechanics-Based Analysis and Traction Control of a Lunar/Planetary Rover

Ishigami, G.; Miwa, A.; Nagatani, K.; Yoshida, K.


Visual Odometry on the Mars Exploration Rovers

Abstract: NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) was designed to traverse in Viking Lander-I style terrains: mostly flat, with many small non-obstacle rocks and occasional obstacles. During actual operations in such terrains, onboard position estimates derived solely from the onboard inertial measurement unit and wheel encoder-based odometry achieved well within the design goal of at most 10% error. However, MER vehicles were also driven along slippery slopes tilted as high as 31 degrees. In such conditions an additional capability was employed to maintain a sufficiently accurate onboard position estimate: visual odometry. The MER visual odometry system comprises onboard software for comparing stereo pairs taken by the pointable mast-mounted 45 degree FOV navigation cameras (NAV-CAMs). The system computes an update to the 6-DOF rover pose (x, y, z, roll, pitch, yaw) by tracking the motion of autonomously-selected "interesting" terrain features between two pairs of stereo images, in both 2D pixel and 3D world coordinates. A maximum likelihood estimator is applied to the computed 3D offsets to produce a final, corrected estimate of vehicle motion between the two pairs. In this paper we describe


Attitude and Position Estimation on the Mars Exploration Rovers

Khaled Ali; Charles A. Vanelli; Jeffrey Biesiadecki; Mark Maimone; Cheng Yang; A. Miguel San Martin; James W. Alexander

Abstract: NASA/JPL's Mars exploration rovers acquire their attitude upon command and autonomously propagate their attitude and position. The rovers use accelerometers and images of the sun to acquire attitude, autonomously searching the sky for the sun with an articulated camera. To propagate the attitude and position the rovers use either accelerometer and gyro readings or gyro readings and wheel odometry, depending on the nature of the movement Earth-based operators have commanded. Where necessary, visual odometry is performed on images to fine tune the position updates, particularly in high slip environments. The capability also exists for visual odometry attitude updates. This paper describes the techniques used by the rovers to acquire and maintain attitude and position knowledge, the accuracy which is obtainable, and lessons learned after more than one year in operation.


Path Following Control with Slip Compensation on Loose Soil for Exploration Rover

Genya Ishigami; Keiji Nagatani; Kazuya Yoshida

Abstract: In this paper, a path following control strategy for lunar/planetary exploration rovers is described, taking into account slip motion of the rover. It is determined that the slip motion of each wheel of the rover must be increased and cannot be neglected when the rover travels on loose soil. Because of slip, following an arbitrary path on loose soil is a difficult task. In order to improve this situation, the authors have developed a path following algorithm with slip compensation. In this algorithm, both steering and driving maneuvers of the rover are derived not only to follow an arbitrary path, but also simultaneously compensate for the slip. The performance of the path following strategy is confirmed through numerical simulation using the wheel-and-vehicle model elaborated in our previous research. The slip motion of the wheel is also addressed, based on a terramechanics approach. The proposed path following algorithm shows better performance than traditional control without slip compensation in the simulation


Tradeoffs Between Directed and Autonomous Driving on the Mars Exploration Rovers

Jeffrey Biesiadecki; Patrick C. Leger; Mark Maimone

The International Journal of Robotics Research

Abstract: NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) have collected a great diversity of geological science results, thanks in large part to their surface mobility capabilities. The six wheel rocker/bogie mobility system provides driving capabilities in a range of terrain types, while the onboard IMU measures actual rover attitude changes (roll, pitch and yaw, but not position) quickly and accurately. Four stereo camera pairs provide accurate position knowledge and/or terrain assessment. Solar panels generally provide enough energy to drive the vehicle for at most four hours each day, but drive time is often restricted by other planned activities. Driving along slopes in nonhomogeneous terrain injects unpredictable amounts of slip into each drive. These restrictions led to the creation of driving strategies that alternately use more or less onboard autonomy, to maximize drive speed and distance at the cost of increased complexity in the sequences of commands built by human Rover Planners each day. Commands to the MER vehicles are typically transmitted at most once per day, so mobility operations are encoded as event-driven sequences of individual motion commands. Motions may be commanded using qui


Terramechanics‐based model for steering maneuver of planetary exploration rovers on loose soil

Genya Ishigami; Akiko Miwa; Keiji Nagatani; Kazuya Yoshida

Abstract: Abstract This paper presents analytical models to investigate the steering maneuvers of planetary exploration rovers on loose soil. The models are based on wheel‐soil interaction mechanics, or terramechanics, with which the traction and disturbance forces of a wheel are evaluated for various slip conditions. These traction forces are decomposed into the longitudinal and lateral directions of the wheel. The latter component, termed the side force has a major influence in characterizing the steering maneuvers of the rover. In this paper, the wheel‐soil mechanics models are developed with particular attention to the side force and the validity of the model is confirmed by using a single‐wheel test bed. The motion profile of the entire rover is numerically evaluated by incorporating the wheel‐soil models into an articulated multibody model that describes the motion dynamics of the vehicle's body and chassis. Steering maneuvers are investigated under different steering angles by using a four‐wheel rover test bed on simulated lunar soil regolith simulant. The experimental results are compared with the simulation results using the corresponding model parameters. The proposed wheel‐and‐veh


Robust and Efficient Stereo Feature Tracking for Visual Odometry

Andrew Johnson; Steven B. Goldberg; Cheng Yang; Larry Matthies

Abstract: Visual odometry can augment or replace wheel odometry when navigating in high slip terrain which is quite important for autonomous navigation on Mars. We present a computationally efficient and robust visual odometry algorithm developed for the Mars Science Laboratory mission. This algorithm is a significant improvement over the algorithm developed for the Mars Exploration Rover Mission because it is at least four time more computationally efficient and it tracks significantly more features. The core of the algorithm is an integrated motion estimation and stereo feature tracking loop that allows for feature recovery while guiding feature correlation search to minimize computation. Results on thousands of terrestrial and Martian stereo pairs show that the algorithm can operate with no initial motion estimate while still obtaining subpixel attitude estimation performance.


Slip ratio for lugged wheel of planetary rover in deformable soil: definition and estimation

Liang Ding; Haibo Gao; Zongquan Deng; Kazuya Yoshida; Keiji Nagatani

Abstract: The wheel slip ratio is an important state variable in terramechanics research and the control of planetary rovers. Definitions of the slip ratio for a wheel with lugs and methods of estimating it for all wheels onboard have seldom been attempted. This paper presents several definitions for the slip ratio of a lugged wheel, which can be interconverted by altering the shearing radius. Equations for calculating the longitudinal velocity and slip ratio of a wheel moving on rough terrain are deduced from the horizontal speed of the wheel's axle. Wheel-soil interaction experiments were performed for two types of wheels with different radii and lugs of different heights. The drawbar pull, torque, and wheel sinkage were measured using sensors. These data confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed slip ratio definition methods. Furthermore, two slip ratio estimation methods are proposed and verified: a visual information-based method by analyzing the lug traces marked on the terrain with high precision, and a terramechanics-based method in which the equations for the vertical load and torque are solved to estimate the slip ratios of all wheels.


Accurate estimation of drawbar pull of wheeled mobile robots traversing sandy terrain using built-in force sensor array wheel

Keiji Nagatani; Ayako Ikeda; Keisuke Sato; Kazuya Yoshida

Abstract: The wheels of planetary rovers that are used in space explorations sometimes slip or lose contact with the ground while traversing a sandy terrain. In order to estimate the behavior of these rovers moving on loose soil, it is very important to accurately estimate the drawbar pull of their wheels. Some wheel-soil interaction models based on terramechanics have been proposed for the estimation of the normal stress distribution and drawbar pull of such rovers. However, our experimental results (normal stress distributions are directly measured using a pressure sensor array, which is attached to the wheels of a rover) show that the distribution range of normal stress for small wheeled rovers obtained using the proposed method is considerably smaller than that obtained by using conventional method. Consequently, the drawbar pull estimated using conventional methods is inaccurate. Therefore, in this study, the normal stress distribution is directly measured using pressure sensors in order to estimate drawbar pull accurately. From the data obtained using the sensors, a soil parameter, which is generally very difficult to measure, is estimated. Then, the drawbar pull is estimated using thi


Terramechanics Model for Wheel-terrain Interaction of Lunar Rover Based on Stress Distribution


Lunar Rover Wheel-Terrain Interaction Model for Climbing-up-Slope Based on Terramechanics

JIAO, Zhen; GAO, Haibo; DENG, Zongquan; DING, Liang


Mars Rover Localization based on Feature Matching between Ground and Orbital Imagery

Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing

Abstract: Mars rover localization is usually realized with data from odometers, inertial measurement units, and stereo cameras. Location errors accumulate inevitably during any long-range rover traverse when data from only these ground-based sensors is employed. This paper presents a new approach to rover localization based on feature extraction and matching between ground (rover) and orbital imagery. This new approach can localize the rover in orbital imagery, eliminating the accumulated localization error and thereby improving the localization accuracy for long range rover traverse. The proposed approach is tested using NAVCAM images acquired by the Spirit and Opportunity rovers at multiple positions along with HIRISE orbital imagery covering the two landing sites. Results show that this new approach is effective in areas where there are outstanding rocks or outcroppings. The accuracy of this new localization approach is better than one pixel of the HIRISE image (which is 0.25 m).


A Nonlinear Volumetric Contact Model for Planetary Rover Wheel/Soil Interaction

Volume 7A: 9th International Conference on Multibody Systems, Nonlinear Dynamics, and Control

Abstract: <jats:p>A novel nonlinear planetary rover wheel/soil interaction model based on the properties of the penetration volume is proposed. This approach allows for fast multibody dynamic simulation of planetary rover operations by providing a closed-form solution for the contact forces. For the derivation of this contact model, the normal stress distribution under the planetary rover wheel is assumed to be a nonlinear function of the soil compression. The soil foundation with which the wheels of a robotic vehicle may interfere is represented by a continuum of hyperelastic springs. A linear version of this representation of the contact interface as a mattress of springs has been derived previously [1] and validated for the simulation of the interaction between two relatively inflexible objects [2]. However, for contacts involving large deformations, the nonlinear material properties have to be considered. In this paper, a brief summary of the elastic foundation model is given and the extensi


Interaction Mechanics Model for Rigid Driving Wheels of Planetary Rovers Moving on Sandy Terrain with Consideration of Multiple Physical Effects

Liang Ding; Zongquan Deng; Haibo Gao; Jianguo Tao; Karl Iagnemma; Guangjun Liu

Abstract: Predicting wheel‐terrain interaction with semiempirical models is of substantial importance for developing planetary wheeled mobile robots (rovers). Primarily geared toward the design of manned terrestrial vehicles, conventional terramechanics models do not provide the sufficient fidelity required for application on autonomous planetary rovers. To develop a high‐fidelity interaction mechanics model, in this study the physical effects of wheel lug, slip sinkage, wheel dimension, and load are analyzed based on experimental results, including wheel sinkage, drawbar pull, normal force, and moment, which are measured on a single‐wheel test bed. The mechanism of lug‐terrain interaction is investigated systematically to clarify the principle of increasing shear stress, conditions of forming successive shearing among adjacent lugs, and the influence on shear displacement of soil. A mathematical model for predicting the concentrated forces and torque of rigid wheels with lugs for planetary rovers moving on sandy terrain is derived by integrating the improved models of normal and shearing stress distributions. In addition to the wheel parameters, terrain parameters, and motion state variable


HW/SW Codesign and FPGA Acceleration of Visual Odometry Algorithms for Rover Navigation on Mars

George Lentaris; Ioannis Stamoulias; Dimitrios Soudris; Manolis Lourakis

IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology

Abstract: Future Mars exploration missions rely heavily on high-mobility autonomous rovers equipped with sophisticated scientific instruments and possessing advanced navigational capabilities. Increasing their navigation velocity and localization accuracy is essential for enabling these rovers to explore large areas on Mars. Contemporary Mars rovers move slowly, partially due to the long execution time of complex computer vision algorithms running on their slow space-grade CPUs. This paper exploits the advent of high-performance space-grade field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) to accelerate the navigation of future rovers. Specifically, it focuses on visual odometry (VO) and performs HW/SW codesign to achieve one order of magnitude faster execution and improved accuracy. Conforming to the specifications of the European Space Agency, we build a proof-of-concept system on an HW/SW platform with processing power resembling that to be available onboard future rovers. We develop a codesign methodology adapted to the rover's specifications, design parallel architectures, and customize several feature extraction, matching, and motion estimation algorithms. We implement and evaluate five distinct


Experimental Validation of a Volumetric Planetary Rover Wheel/Soil Interaction Model

Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics

Abstract: <jats:p>For the multibody simulation of planetary rover operations, a wheel–soil contact model is necessary to represent the forces and moments between the tire and the soft soil. A novel nonlinear contact modeling approach based on the properties of the hypervolume of interpenetration is validated in this paper. This normal contact force model is based on the Winkler foundation model with nonlinear spring properties. To fully define the proposed normal contact force model for this application, seven parameters are required. Besides the geometry parameters that can be easily measured, three soil parameters representing the hyperelastic and plastic properties of the soil have to be identified. Since it is very difficult to directly measure the latter set of soil parameters, they are identified by comparing computer simulations with experimental results of drawbar pull tests performed under different slip conditions on the Juno rover of the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). A multibody dynami


Review of visual odometry: types, approaches, challenges, and applications

Mohammad O. A. Aqel; Mohammad Hamiruce Marhaban; M. Iqbal Saripan; Napsiah Ismail

Abstract: Accurate localization of a vehicle is a fundamental challenge in mobile robot applications. A robot must maintain knowledge of its position over time to achieve autonomous navigation. Therefore, various sensors, techniques, and systems for mobile robot positioning, such as wheel odometry, laser/ultrasonic odometry, global position system (GPS), global navigation satellite system (GNSS), inertial navigation system (INS), and visual odometry (VO), have been developed by researchers and engineers. However, each technique has its own weaknesses. Although wheel odometry is the simplest technique available for position estimation, it suffers from position drift due to wheel slippage INS is highly prone to accumulating drift, and a highly precise INS is expensive and an unviable solution for commercial purposes. Although GPS is the most common solution to localization as it can provide absolute position without error accumulation, it is only effective in places with a clear view of the sky. Moreover, it cannot be used indoors and in confined spaces The commercial GPS estimates position with errors in the order of meters. This error is considered too large for precise applications that req


Design of Wheel of Manned Lunar Rover and Research on Terramechanics Model for Wheel-terrain Interaction Based on Elastic Wheel


Soil Displacement Terramechanics for Wheel-Based Trenching with a Planetary Rover

2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA)


Estimating Wheel Slip of a Planetary Exploration Rover via Unsupervised Machine Learning

Kruger, Justin; Rogg, Arno; Gonzalez, Ramon


Discrete element modelling for wheel-soil interaction and the analysis of the effect of gravity


Measuring the Normal Stress Distribution Acting on a Locked-Wheel of Push–Pull Locomotion Rovers via a Wheel Sensor System

Daisuke Fujiwara; Tetsuya Oshima; Kojiro Iizuka

Abstract: The resistance force generated when the locked-wheel acts on the soil is critical for deciding the traveling performance of push-pull locomotion. The resistance force depends on the tangential force of the sliding soil wedge beneath the wheel, and the tangential force depends on the forces of the soil and the wheel perpendicular to the tangential direction. Hence, the normal stress distribution of the locked-wheel can affect the resistance force. Previous studies indicated different insights that describe either a uniform or non-uniform shape of the normal stress distribution. The distribution of the locked-wheel still needs to be examined experimentally. This study measured the normal stress distribution using the wheel sensor system, and the variation of the contact area and slip surface beneath the wheel were also observed in PIV analysis. Those results showed that the normal stress distribution was non-uniform along the wheel contact area, and the change of the distribution was confirmed with the change of the contact area and slip surface. Then, the resistance force calculated by a preliminary model based on the measured data was compared with the total resistance force of the


Learning-Based End-to-End Path Planning for Lunar Rovers with Safety Constraints

Abstract: Path planning is an essential technology for lunar rover to achieve safe and efficient autonomous exploration mission, this paper proposes a learning-based end-to-end path planning algorithm for lunar rovers with safety constraints. Firstly, a training environment integrating real lunar surface terrain data was built using the Gazebo simulation environment and a lunar rover simulator was created in it to simulate the real lunar surface environment and the lunar rover system. Then an end-to-end path planning algorithm based on deep reinforcement learning method is designed, including state space, action space, network structure, reward function considering slip behavior, and training method based on proximal policy optimization. In addition, to improve the generalization ability to different lunar surface topography and different scale environments, a variety of training scenarios were set up to train the network model using the idea of curriculum learning. The simulation results show that the proposed planning algorithm can successfully achieve the end-to-end path planning of the lunar rover, and the path generated by the proposed algorithm has a higher safety guarantee compared wi


Machine learning in planetary rovers: A survey of learning versus classical estimation methods in terramechanics for in situ exploration


Towards in-situ characterization of regolith strength by inverse terramechanics and machine learning: A survey and applications to planetary rovers


Slip Estimation for Mars Rover Zhurong Based on Data Drive

Tianyi Zhang; Peng Song; Yang Jia; Tian He; Junkai Sun; Chuliang Yan

Abstract: China’s Mars rover Zhurong successfully landed on Mars on 15 May 2021, and it is currently conducting an exploration mission on the Red Planet. This paper develops slip estimation models for the Mars rover Zhurong based on the data drive approach. Data were obtained by Zhurong’s validator ground indoor tests, and the test site was equipped with a low-gravity simulation device and simulated Mars soil to simulate the Mars conditions as much as possible. The obtained slip models trained by BP and GA-BP algorithms were applied to estimate Zhurong’s longitudinal (slip_x) and lateral slip (slip_y) on Mars, and the slip estimation values were used to display Zhurong’s actual driving path. The analyzed results prove that the GA-BP slip models perform better than the BP models, and can both be applied for correcting Zhurong’s path. The proposed models have high potential in guiding the path planning and monitoring of the slip for the Mars rover Zhurong.


Wheel's Slip Ratio and Sinkage Estimation for Planetary Rovers Moving on Deformable Terrain


Path Planning Technique for Mobile Robots: A Review

Liwei Yang; Ping Li; Song Qian; Quan He; Jinchao Miao; Mengqi Liu; Yanpei Hu; Erexidin Memetimin

Abstract: Mobile robot path planning involves designing optimal routes from starting points to destinations within specific environmental conditions. Even though there are well-established autonomous navigation solutions, it is worth noting that comprehensive, systematically differentiated examinations of the critical technologies underpinning both single-robot and multi-robot path planning are notably scarce. These technologies encompass aspects such as environmental modeling, criteria for evaluating path quality, the techniques employed in path planning and so on. This paper presents a thorough exploration of techniques within the realm of mobile robot path planning. Initially, we provide an overview of eight diverse methods for mapping, each mirroring the varying levels of abstraction that robots employ to interpret their surroundings. Furthermore, we furnish open-source map datasets suited for both Single-Agent Path Planning (SAPF) and Multi-Agent Path Planning (MAPF) scenarios, accompanied by an analysis of prevalent evaluation metrics for path planning. Subsequently, focusing on the distinctive features of SAPF algorithms, we categorize them into three classes: classical algorithms, in


Theoretical study on a modified rocker-bogie suspension for robotic rovers

Chiara Cosenza; Vincenzo Niola; Stefano Pagano; Sergio Savino

Abstract: Abstract Robotic rovers equipped with articulated rocker-bogie suspension have aroused great interest after the explorations on Mars; this interest has also shifted to different types of terrestrial applications such as in the agriculture, military, and rescue fields. The suspension can be designed so that, when the rover is on flat and horizontal ground, the weight is evenly distributed among the wheels; in this way, all wheels have the same traction capability and offer the same rolling resistance. As the operating conditions vary due to sloping ground, uneven ground surface, or different payload position, the weight distribution can undergo considerable variations. This type of suspension is statically determined with respect to weight, but it is indeterminate with respect to traction forces; the traction control system aims to avoid the wheels slippage. In this paper, the traction contribution that each wheel can provide, to overcome a step obstacle, is shown. Furthermore, the possibility of regulating the distribution of vertical loads among the wheels adopting a torsion spring, with adjustable preload, arranged between rocker and bogie, is evaluated. A suitable spring preload


Numerical analysis of wheel locomotion on soft soil using the extended terramechanics model based on cellular automata


Linear Prediction of High-Slip Sinkage for Planetary Rovers' Lugged-Wheels Based on Superposition Principle


Current-Based Analysis and Validation of a Wheel-Soil Interaction Model for the Trafficability of a Planetary Rover


A terramechanics model for high slip angle and skid with prediction of wheel-soil interaction geometry


Advancing Planetary Rover Mobility: Terramechanics Wheel-Terrain Modeling in a Real-Time Simulation Framework

Kruuse, Karin; Islam, Quazi Saimoon; Teras, Hans; Pajusalu, Mihkel


Modeling of slip rate-dependent traversability for path planning of wheeled mobile robot in sandy terrain


TEWD-DFO: A Soft-Soil-Aware Driving Force Observer Using Terramechanics-Enhanced Wheel Dynamics for Planetary Rover

Yeo, Changmin; Görner, Martin; Seo, Younghoon; Hong, Jinsong; Oh, Sehoon

IECON 2025 – 51st Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society


Dynamic Modeling of Wheel-Soil Lateral Interaction with Scalable Bulldozing Effects for Planetary Rover

International Conference on Control Automation and Systems


The Credibility Revolution in Empirical Economics: How Better Research Design Is Taking the Con out of Econometrics

Abstract: Angrist and Pischke argue that empirical economics became credible by shifting from elaborate structural and functional-form assumptions toward research designs that exploit natural experiments and qu


Difference-in-Differences with multiple time periods

Abstract: Callaway and Sant'Anna develop a difference-in-differences estimator for settings with multiple periods and staggered treatment timing that is robust to heterogeneous treatment effects. They define gr


Identification of Causal Effects Using Instrumental Variables

Angrist, J. D.; Imbens, G. W.; Rubin, D. B.

Journal of the American Statistical Association

Abstract: Angrist, Imbens, and Rubin unite instrumental variables with the Rubin potential-outcomes framework. They state the assumptions under which IV identifies a causal effect: the stable-unit-treatment-val


Identification and Estimation of Local Average Treatment Effects

Abstract: Imbens and Angrist establish that instrumental-variables estimation, under monotonicity (no defiers), recovers not the average treatment effect for the whole population but the Local Average Treatment


Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion

Abstract: Angrist and Pischke's design-based econometrics text. Organizes credible causal inference around research designs that exploit natural or quasi-experimental variation: randomized trials, regression un


Difference-in-Differences with Variation in Treatment Timing

Abstract: The canonical difference-in-differences (DD) model contains two time periods, "pre" and "post", and two groups, "treatment" and "control". Most DD applications, however, exploit variation across groups of units that receive treatment at different times. This paper derives an expression for this general DD estimator, and shows that it is a weighted average of all possible two-group/ two-period DD estimators in the data. This result provides detailed guidance about how to use regression DD in practice. I define the DD estimand and show how it averages treatment effect heterogeneity and that it is biased when effects change over time. I propose a new balance test derived from a unified definition of common trends. I show how to decompose the difference between two specifications, and I apply it to models that drop untreated units, weight, disaggregate time fixed effects, control for unit-specific time trends, or exploit a third difference.


Two-way Fixed Effects Estimators with Heterogeneous Treatment Effects

de Chaisemartin, Clément; D'Haultfoeuille, Xavier


Two-way fixed effects estimators with heterogeneous treatment effects

de Chaisemartin, C.; D'Haultfoeuille, X.

Abstract: de Chaisemartin and D'Haultfoeuille show that two-way fixed-effects regressions estimate weighted sums of treatment effects in which some weights can be negative, so the coefficient may be negative ev


Two-Way Fixed Effects Estimators with Heterogeneous Treatment Effects

de Chaisemartin, Clément; D’Haultfœuille, Xavier

Abstract: <jats:p> Linear regressions with period and group fixed effects are widely used to estimate treatment effects. We show that they estimate weighted sums of the average treatment effects (ATE ) in each group and period, with weights that may be negative. Due to the negative weights, the linear regression coefficient may for instance be negative while all the ATEs are positive. We propose another estimator that solves this issue. In the two applications we revisit, it is significantly different from the linear regression estimator. (JEL C21, C23, D72, J31, J51, L82) </jats:p>


Difference-in-differences with variation in treatment timing

Abstract: Goodman-Bacon shows that the standard two-way fixed-effects difference-in-differences estimator, applied when units adopt treatment at different times (staggered timing), is a weighted average of all


Tantalus on the Road to Asymptopia

Abstract: Leamer revisits his 'Let's Take the Con Out of Econometrics' critique and assesses the credibility revolution. He argues that while randomized and natural experiments have improved credibility, sensit


Mastering 'Metrics: The Path from Cause to Effect


Autonomous rovers for Mars exploration

R. Washington; Keith Golden; John Bresina; David E. Smith; C F Anderson; Trey Smith

Abstract: The Pathfinder mission demonstrated the potential for robotic Mars exploration but at the same time indicated the need for more robust rover autonomy. Future planned missions call for long traverses over unknown terrain, robust navigation and instrument placement, and reliable operations for extended periods of time. Ultimately, missions may visit multiple science sites in a single day and perform opportunistic science data collection, as well as complex scouting, construction, and maintenance tasks in preparation for an eventual human presence. Significant advances in robust autonomous operations are needed to enable these types of missions. Towards this end, we have designed an on-board executive architecture that incorporates robust flexible operation, resource utilization, and failure recovery. In addition, we have designed ground tools to produce and refine contingent schedules that take advantage of the on-board architecture's flexible execution characteristics. Together, the on-board executive and the ground tools constitute an integrated rover autonomy architecture.


Experiences with operations and autonomy of the Mars Pathfinder Microrover

Andrew Mishkin; Jack Morrison; Tam T. Nguyen; Henry W. Stone; Brian Cooper; Brian Wilcox

Abstract: The Microrover Flight Experiment (MFEX) is a NASA OACT (Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology) flight experiment which, integrated with the Mars Pathfinder (MPF) lander and spacecraft system, landed on Mars on July 4, 1997. In the succeeding 30 sols (1 sol=1 Martian day), the Sojourner microrover accomplished all of its primary and extended mission objectives. After completion of the originally planned extended mission, MFEX continued to conduct a series of technology experiments, deploy its alpha proton X-ray spectrometer (APXS) on rocks and soil, and image both terrain features and the lander. This mission was conducted under the constraints of a once-per-sol opportunity for command and telemetry transmissions between the lander and Earth operators. As such, the MFEX rover was required to carry out its mission, including terrain navigation and contingency response, under supervised autonomous control. For example, goal locations were specified daily by human operators; the rover then safely traversed to these locations. During traverses, the rover autonomously detected and avoided rock, slope, and drop-off hazards, changing its path as needed before turning back towards its


Localization of Mars rovers using descent and surface‐based image data

Rongxing Li; Fei Ma; Fengliang Xu; Larry Matthies; Clark F. Olson; R. E. Arvidson

Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres

Abstract: The planned 2003 Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission and follow‐on surface activities associated with landed missions will focus on long distance roving and sample return, which require detailed knowledge of vehicle locations in both local and global reference systems. In this paper we argue that this rover localization should be known to within 0.1 of the distance traversed for local coordinate systems. To test the ability to meet this goal using only descent and rover‐based data, we conducted experiments with simulated descent images and Field Integrated Design and Operations Rover data collected during field tests at Silver Lake, California, in April 1999. Specifically, an integrated bundle adjustment system incorporating both descent and rover‐based images was developed and used to localize the rover positions. On the basis of surveyed ground control points it is demonstrated that the joint analysis produces RMS errors of 0.24, 0.15, and 0.38 m in x , y , and z % directions in a local coordinate system, respectively, for ground points within 500 m from the landing point and 0.23, 0.21, and 0.46 m within a distance of 1.5 km. Results show that it is possible to meet the 0.1 goa


Autonomous navigation to provide long-distance surface traverses for Mars Rover Sample Return Mission

Abstract: Knowledge acquisition and representation techniques are developed to allow an autonomous vehicle to negotiate a path over partially unknown terrain, such as the long-distance traverses for the Mars Rover Sample Return Mission. Terrain navigation is accomplished by the following sequence of steps: the skylines from the visibility map and from the local terrain map are compared and the two 3-D curves in space are stochastically matched to update the vehicle location. A path segment is selected taking into consideration the goal, overall global topography, obstacles such as craters and boulders derived from the range-finder observations, and a priori constraints related to the mission, fuel consumption, and vehicle stability. The vehicle reaches a new vantage point with relatively broad visibility, but within sight of the last observation point. The skyline is then estimated and approximated again, and the cycle is reiterated for another advance.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">></ETX>


Visual odometry on the Mars exploration rovers - a tool to ensure accurate driving and science imaging

Cheng Yang; Mark Maimone; Larry Matthies

Abstract: In this paper, visual odometry is presented as an approach to position estimation to find features in a stereo image pair and track them from one frame to the next. Visual odometry has been a highly effective tool for maintaining vehicle safety while driving near obstacles on slopes, achieving difficult drive approaches in fewer sols, and ensuring accurate science imaging. Although it requires active pointing by human drivers in feature-poor terrain, the improved position knowledge enables more autonomous capability and better science return during planetary operations.


MER Spirit rover localization: Comparison of ground image– and orbital image–based methods and science applications

Rongxing Li; Shaojun He; Yunhang Chen; Min Tang; Pingbo Tang; Kaichang Di; Larry Matthies; R. E. Arvidson

Abstract: [1] During 6 years of continuous operations on the Martian surface, the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Spirit has covered a traverse of approximately 7 km from the landing point to its current position at “Troy” near Home Plate. Localization of Spirit (and Opportunity) has been performed using two different methods: one that employs an incremental bundle adjustment (IBA) using rover imagery, and one that compares image features common to both a rover orthoimage and an orbital orthoimage. The IBA method continuously yields the desired 3-D rover positions at a very high level of accuracy and provides a simultaneous solution for high-quality topographic mapping of neighborhoods surrounding the rover. On the other hand, high-resolution orbital imagery can verify rover positions wherever the rover track is visible. Rapid rover localization on the orbital orthoimage is often achieved by comparing a rover orthoimage to the orbital orthoimage. In this paper, we present research results from a systematic comparison of these two localization methods over the entire length of the Spirit traverse. Two orbital orthoimages were generated from High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) ima


Terrain physical properties derived from orbital data and the first 360 sols of Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover observations in Gale Crater

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

Abstract: Abstract Physical properties of terrains encountered by the Curiosity rover during the first 360 sols of operations have been inferred from analysis of the scour zones produced by Sky Crane Landing System engine plumes, wheel touch down dynamics, pits produced by Chemical Camera (ChemCam) laser shots, rover wheel traverses over rocks, the extent of sinkage into soils, and the magnitude and sign of rover‐based slippage during drives. Results have been integrated with morphologic, mineralogic, and thermophysical properties derived from orbital data, and Curiosity‐based measurements, to understand the nature and origin of physical properties of traversed terrains. The hummocky plains (HP) landing site and traverse locations consist of moderately to well‐consolidated bedrock of alluvial origin variably covered by slightly cohesive, hard‐packed basaltic sand and dust, with both embedded and surface‐strewn rock clasts. Rock clasts have been added through local bedrock weathering and impact ejecta emplacement and form a pavement‐like surface in which only small clasts (<5 to 10 cm wide) have been pressed into the soil during wheel passages. The bedded fractured (BF) unit, site of Curio


Modelling and contact analysis of planetary exploration rovers

Abstract: ABSTRACT Autonomous navigation is a requirement of any planetary exploration rover moving in an environment too far from Earth for efficient communication between the rover and ground control. An important feature of this autonomy is the ability of the rover to successfully negotiate obstacles that may lie in its chosen path. To accommodate this need, planetary rovers are furnished with many actively actuated or passive degrees of freedom to influence the rover configuration, and in turn, the wheel-terrain contact forces that propel the rover forth. Analysis of these methods however, depends on the use of parameters which can only be ascertained with detailed knowledge of the geometry, and constitutive properties of the terrain. This can produce considerable difficulty for the analysis of systems operating in unknown or unfamiliar environments. In this thesis, a performance indicator know as the "effective kinetic energy of impact", is explored for use in planetary rover operations. The effective kinetic energy is an indicator of how system configuration at the onset of an impact, will affect the resulting contact and impact forces. This indicator requires no knowledge of constitut


Overview and Results From the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover's First Science Campaign on the Jezero Crater Floor

Abstract: Abstract The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover landed in Jezero crater on 18 February 2021. After a 100‐sol period of commissioning and the Ingenuity Helicopter technology demonstration, Perseverance began its first science campaign to explore the enigmatic Jezero crater floor, whose igneous or sedimentary origins have been much debated in the scientific community. This paper describes the campaign plan developed to explore the crater floor's Máaz and Séítah formations and summarizes the results of the campaign between sols 100–379. By the end of the campaign, Perseverance had traversed more than 5 km, created seven abrasion patches, and sealed nine samples and a witness tube. Analysis of remote and proximity science observations show that the Máaz and Séítah formations are igneous in origin and composed of five and two geologic members, respectively. The Séítah formation represents the olivine‐rich cumulate formed from differentiation of a slowly cooling melt or magma body, and the Máaz formation likely represents a separate series of lava flows emplaced after Séítah. The Máaz and Séítah rocks also preserve evidence of multiple episodes of aqueous alteration in secondary minerals like


Perseverance Rapid Traverse Campaign


An Advanced Hexacopter for Mars Exploration: Attitude Control and Autonomous Navigation

Laura Sopegno; Simone Martini; Salvatore Pedone; Adriano Fagiolini; Matthew J. Rutherford; Margareta Stefanovic; Alessandro Rizzo; Patrizia Livreri

IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems

Abstract: Mars exploration has recently witnessed major interest within the scientific community, particularly because unmanned aerial robotic platforms offer reliable alternatives for acquiring and collecting data and information from the Red Planet. However, the specific conditions of the Martian environment result in a restricted flight envelope when flying close to Mars and then landing on the surface of Mars. Therefore, in addition to the requirement to develop an aerial platform suitable for operations on Mars, autonomous navigation strategies and robust controllers are also needed for exploration tasks. It is argued that hexacopters with their relatively compact design represent a promising solution for autonomous exploration tasks on Mars, overcoming at the same time the limitations of wheel-based rovers. This research focuses on the design of a Mars Hexacopter (MHex) for a scouting mission in the Jezero region of Mars. The configuration and architecture of the hexacopter follow NASA conceptual study of the Mars Science Helicopter (MSH). Then, the mission profile for mapping Belva crater is examined, followed by a detailed approach to implement and test observer-based navigation and